Volume 06 · Issue 04 · 2017

Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease caused by blood flukes. The disease is caused by an inflammatory reaction to parasite eggs retained in the liver, bladder and reproductive organs. According to 2017 World Health Organization (WHO) estimates 220 million people are potentially infected, from which probably 10% are children under 6 years of age. The regular treatment approach of a single, oral dose of 40 mg/kg body weight with praziquantel however, is difficult for children under the age of 6, leaving them without a treatment option.

In order to address this important gap in treatment target populations, an international public-private partnership that works on a not-for-profit basis in the field of drug research and development for schistosomiasis was established in 2012. This is called the Pediatric Praziquantel Consortium. Its mission was and continues to be to develop, register and provide access to a suitable pediatric praziquantel formulation for treating schistosomiasis in preschool-age children (3-6 months up to 6 years).

The Target Product Profile for the pediatric formulation of praziquantel that would be suitable to treat children as young as 3-6 months was then defined by a group of experts, including members from the Pediatric Praziquantel Consortium partner organizations as well as experts from WHO (as observer) and schistosomiasis endemic countries. The development of the drug is ongoing and the Pediatric Praziquantel Consortium aims to submit the regulatory dossier for marketing approval in endemic countries and WHO prequalification in 2018/19 with approval and product launch for schistosomiasis pediatric case management in key endemic countries in 2019. Ultimately, the goal is for the product to be considered for a large-scale mass distribution program by 2022.

Triatomines, also known as kissing bugs, which are found throughout the world and especially in Latin America, are well known natural vectors that transmit American trypanosomiasis, also called Chagas disease. In China, the presence of two species of Triatoma (Triatoma rubrofasciata and T. sinica) was recorded in the past. Due to the growing population and the increasing risk of the global spread of Chagas disease, triatomines became a potential public health nuisance, and in 2016, we started monitoring triatomine activities in southern China.

Triatomine specimens were collected by the National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, and identified by their morphological characteristics under a dissecting microscope. In addition to morphological analysis, the genomic DNA of the specimens was extracted, and the mitochondrial 16S rRNA, the cytochrome b (CytB) gene and the nuclear ribosomal 28S rRNA gene were PCR-amplified to analyze and confirm the species genetically.

One female adult insect and one male adult insect were collected in a dwelling in the rural area of Shunde County, Foshan City, Guangdong Province, China (22°42'44.63"N, 113°08'45.34"E). The results from the morphological and genetic analyses indicated that these triatomines were T. rubrofasciata.

This is the first time that the occurrence of T. rubrofasciata has been confirmed in Foshan City, Guangdong Province in southern China. Further studies are needed to reach a clearer understanding of the ecology of this species of triatomine, since it has been found to be naturally infected by Trypanosoma cruzi and T. conorhini and there is evidence of its domiciliation capabilities.

Echinococcosis has a worldwide geographical distribution with endemic foci on every inhabited continent. Due to the frequent outbreaks in different parts of Pakistan in the recent past, echinococcosis is being described as a neglected tropical disease and is considered one of the most neglected parasitic diseases in the country. In endemic regions, predominantly settings with limited resources, there are high numbers of echinococcosis patients, as these communities do not have access to appropriate treatment. In Pakistan, there are limited reports on echinococcosis. The disease is prevalent in human and livestock, but this has not been sufficiently explored yet. Pakistan is an agricultural country and due to the disease's zoonotic mode of transmission, there is a dire need of future research on it. The present paper is an effort to highlight the importance of echinococcosis in Pakistan.

There is a dire need for future research on echinococcosis in Pakistan as very few investigations had been carried out on this topic thus far. The prevalence of the disease in neighbouring countries highlights that Pakistan might be at severe risk of this zoonotic infection and further supports the need for more research. In Pakistan, the majority of the population lives in rural areas with limited acess to proper hygienic/sanitary facilities. These conditions favour the outbreak of diseases such as echinococcosis. The limited available data could result in higher outbreaks in the future, and thus cause the already weak healthcare system to overburden.

The country has a meagre annual budget for health, which is being spent on known infections such as polio, dengue fever and hepatic viral infections. A proper surveillance system for echinococcosis is required across the country as treatment is usually expensive, complicated and may require extensive surgery and/or prolonged drug therapy. Development of new/novel drugs and other treatment modalities receives very little, if any, attention. Prognostic awareness programmes against this infection involve deworming of the infected animals, improved food inspection and slaughterhouse hygiene, and public education campaigns.

Future research on echinococcosis is anticipated to demonstrate whether the epidemiology, diagnosis and recombinant vaccines/antibodies relating to echinococcosis can meet the quality standards (purity, potency, safety and efficacy) defined by the World Health Organization. Research work should be carried out on the epidemiology and serodiagnosis of echinocossis in the different areas of Pakistan, which will be useful for the proper eradication of echinococcosis in this region. The health department should implement awareness-raising campaigns for the general public in order to reduce the burden of disease.

Rabies is a serious reemerging zoonosis in China. At present human rabies cases are primarily diagnosed based on clinical presentation.

In August 2012, a woman and her son were attacked by a stray dog in Henan, China. The son received rabies postexposure prophylaxis (wound treatment followed by vaccine, no immunoglobulin), however, the mother did not. Rabies infection was subsequently laboratory confirmed in the mother and she died in December; her son is alive and healthy after 2 years of follow-up.

This report documents that the timely utilization of postexposure prophylaxis is a required measure in preventing rabies after exposure to an animal bite.

Treatment completion among tuberculosis patients remains low across various regions of Uganda, despite implementation of directly observed treatment short course. This study evaluated the determinants of treatment completion in a rural health sub-district of south western Uganda.

In April 2012, health facility records were reviewed to identify tuberculosis patients who had been initiated on treatment between June 2008 and May 2011, in Rwampara Health Sub-District, south-western Uganda. Out of the 162 patients identified, 128 (79%) were traced and subsequently interviewed during a survey conducted in June 2012. Eleven (6.8%) of the 162 patients died, while 23 (14.2%) could not be traced. A review of records showed that 17 of those that could not be traced completed treatment while the other six did not have definitive records.

Treatment completion among the 128 patients interviewed was 89.8%. Pre-treatment counselling (aOR= 24.3, 95% CI: 1.4-26.6, P= 0.03), counselling at the time of submission of sputum during follow up (aOR = 6.8, 95% CI: 1.4-33.7, P = 0.02), and refill of drugs on the exact appointment date (aOR = 13.4, 95% CI: 1.9-93.0, P= 0.01), were independently associated with treatment completion.

The level of treatment completion was higher than the national average, with service-related determinants identified as being critical for ensuring treatment completion. These data provide further evidence for the need to provide ongoing counselling support to tuberculosis patients. Enhancing the opportunities for counselling of tuberculosis patients should therefore be rigorously promoted as an approach to increase treatment completion in rural settings.

To avoid or mitigate potential project-related adverse health effects, the Trident copper project in Kalumbila, northwestern Zambia, commissioned a health impact assessment. HIV was identified a priority health issue based on the local vulnerability to HIV transmission and experience from other mining projects in Africa. Hence, an HIV/AIDS management plan was developed, including community and workplace interventions, with HIV testing and counselling (HTC) being one of the key components. We present trends in HTC data over a 4-year period.

In 13 communities affected by the Trident project, HTC was implemented from 2012 onwards, using rapid diagnostic tests, accompanied by pre- and post-test counselling through trained personnel. In addition, HTC was initiated in the project workforce in 2013, coinciding with the launch of the mine development. HTC uptake and HIV positivity rates were assessed in the study population and linked to demographic factors using regression analysis.

In total, 11,638 community members and 5564 workers have taken up HTC with an increase over time. The HIV positivity rate in the community was 3.0% in 2012 and 3.4% in 2015, while positivity rate in the workforce was 5.2% in 2013 and 4.3% in 2015. Females showed a significantly higher odds of having a positive test result than males (odds ratio (OR) = 1.96, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.55-2.50 among women in the community and OR = 2.90, 95% CI: 1.74-4.84 among women in the workforce). HTC users in the 35-49 years age group were most affected by HIV, with an average positivity rate of 6.6% in the community sample and 7.9% in the workforce sample. These study groups had 4. 50 and 4.95 higher odds of being positive, respectively, compared to their younger counterparts (15-24 years).

While HTC uptake increased five-fold in the community and almost three-fold in the workplace, the HIV positivity rates were insignificantly higher in 2015 compared to 2012. Our data can be used alongside other surveillance data to track HIV transmission in this specific context. Guided by the health impact assessment, the HIV prevention and control programme was readily adapted to the current setting through the identification of socioeconomic and environmental determinants of health.

Malaria remains the most important cause of morbidity and mortality in Tanzania. However, its prevalence varies from area to area depending on various ecological, socio-economic and health system factors. This study was carried out to determine malaria prevalence and associated factors among rice farming communities in the Kilangali village of Kilosa District in Central Tanzania.

A cross-sectional study was conducted in May 2015, involving randomly selected persons living in the six sub-villages of the Kilangali village, namely Mlegeni, Kisiwani, Makuruwili, Kwamtunga, Upogoroni and Chamwino. A finger prick blood sample was obtained for diagnosis of malaria infection using Giemsa-stained thick smears and a rapid malaria diagnostic test. Study participants were also screened for haemoglobin levels and a total of 570 children aged ≤ 12 years of age were examined for spleen enlargement using the palpation method.

A total of 1154 persons were examined for malaria infection with mean age of 21.9± 19.69 years. The overall malaria prevalence was 14.2% and 17.5% based on microscopic examination and rapid diagnostic test, respectively. Plasmodium falciparum accounted for the majority (89%) of the malaria infections. The overall geometrical mean parasite density was 20.5 parasites/μL (95% CI: 14.6-28.8). Malaria prevalence and parasitaemia was highest among individuals living in the Mlegeni (23.9%) and Makuruwili (24.4%) sub-villages. Among the children examined for splenomegaly, 2.98% (17/570) had it. The overall prevalence of anaemia was 34.6%. Malaria infection was associated with the age groups of 1-10 years (aOR = 4.41, 95% CI: 1.96-9.93, P < 0.001) and 11-20 years (aOR = 6.68, 95% CI: 2.91-15.37, P < 0.001); and mild anaemia (aOR = 1.71, 95% CI: 1.11-2.62, P < 0.014) and moderate anaemia (aOR = 1.55, 95% CI: 1.01-2.39, P < 0.045).

Malaria was found at the study setting and its prevalence varied according to the demographic characteristics of the study participants and between sub-villages that are closely located.

Diarrhoeal diseases remain an important cause of mortality and morbidity among children, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. In Senegal, diarrhoea is responsible for 15% of all deaths in children under the age of five and is the third leading cause of childhood deaths. For targeted planning and implementation of prevention strategies, a context-specific understanding of the determinants of diarrhoeal diseases is needed. The aim of this study was to identify risk factors of diarrhoeal diseases in children under the age of five in Mbour, Senegal.

Between February and March 2014, a cross-sectional survey was conducted in four zones of Mbour to estimate the burden of diarrhoeal diseases (i.e. diarrhoea episodes in the 2 weeks preceding the survey) and associated risk factors. The zones covered urban central, peri-central, north peripheral and south peripheral areas. Overall, 596 households were surveyed by a questionnaire, yielding information on sociodemographic, environmental and hygiene behavioural factors. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were used to identify risk factors associated with the occurrence of diarrhoea.

The reported prevalence of diarrhoea among children under the age of five during the 2 weeks preceding the survey was 26%. Without adjustment, the highest diarrhoea prevalence rates were observed in the peri-central (44.8%) and urban central zones (36.3%). Multivariable regression revealed significant associations between diarrhoeal diseases and unemployment of mothers (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 1.62, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.18-2.23), use of open bags for storing household waste (aOR = 1.75, 95% CI: 1.00-3.02), evacuation of household waste in public streets (aOR = 2.07, 95% CI: 1.20-3.55), no treatment of stored drinking water (aOR = 1.69, 95% CI: 1.11-2.56) and use of shared toilets (aOR = 1.69, 95% CI: 1.11-2.56).

We found a high prevalence of diarrhoea in children under the age of five in Mbour, with the highest prevalence occurring in the central and peri-central areas. These findings underscore the need for public health interventions to alleviate the burden of diarrhoea among vulnerable groups. Promotion of solid waste disposal and reduction of wastewater exposure should be implemented without delay.

As the natural hosts of avian influenza viruses (AIVs), aquatic and migratory birds provide a gene pool for genetic transfer among species and across species, forming transient "genome constellations." This work describes the phylogenetic dynamics of H1NX based on the complete molecular characterization of eight genes of viruses that were collected from 2014 to 2015 in Anhui Province, China.

Hemagglutination and hemagglutination inhibition tests were used to determine the hemagglutination (HA) activity of the HA subtypes. The entire genomes of the viruses were sequenced on an ABI PRISM 3500x1 DNA Analyzer. The sequences were genetically analysed to study their genetic evolution using DNASTAR and MEGA 6. The pathogenic effects of the viruses were evaluated using mouse infection models.

Seven strains of the H1 subtype avian influenza virus were isolated. Phylogenetic analysis indicated natural recombination of the H1 influenza viruses between the Eurasian lineage and the North American lineage. Some genes had high sequence identity with A/bean goose/Korea/220/201 1(H9N2), which is a typical case involving viral reassortment between the Eurasian lineage and the North American lineage. The results of infection experiments in mice showed that the viruses could acquire the ability to multiply in mouse respiratory organs without adaptation.

These findings suggest that continued surveillance of wild birds, particularly migratory birds, is important to provide early warning of possible H1 influenza epidemics and to understand the ecology of the virus.

In order to achieve the goal of malaria elimination, the Chinese government launched the National Malaria Elimination Programme in 2010. However, as a result of increasing cross-border population movements, the risk of imported malaria cases still exists at the border areas of China, resulting in a potential threat of local transmission. The focus of this paper is to assess the Plasmodium vivax incidences in Tengchong, Yunnan Province, at the border areas of China and Myanmar.

Time series of P. vivax incidences in Tengchong from 2006 to 2010 are collected from the web-based China Information System for Disease Control and Prevention, which are further separated into time series of imported and local cases. First, the seasonal and trend decomposition are performed on time series of imported cases using Loess method. Then, the impact of climatic factors on the local transmission of P. vivax is assessed using both linear regression models (LRM) and generalized additive models (GAM). Specifically, the notion of vectorial capacity (VCAP) is used to estimate the transmission potential of P. vivax at different locations, which is calculated based on temperature and rainfall collected from China Meteorological Administraton.

Comparing with Ruili County, the seasonal pattern of imported cases in Tengchong is different: Tengchong has only one peak, while Ruili has two peaks during each year. This may be due to the different cross-border behaviors of peoples in two locations. The vectorial capacity together with the imported cases and the average humidity, can well explain the local incidences of P. vivax through both LRM and GAM methods. Moreover, the maximum daily temperature is verified to be more suitable to calculate VCAP than the minimal and average temperature in Tengchong County.

To achieve malaria elimination in China, the assessment results in this paper will provide further guidance in active surveillance and control of malaria at the border areas of China and Myanmar.

In malaria endemic areas, infected blood donors serve as a source of infection to blood recipients, which may adversely affect their prognosis. This necessitates the proper screening of blood to be used for transfusion in these areas. The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of malaria parasitaemia in blood donors in Buea, Cameroon, and to evaluate the performance of a rapid diagnostic test (RDT), a malaria antibody enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and a Plasmodium lactate dehydrogenase (pLDH) ELISA in the detection of asymptomatic malaria parasitaemia in the target population.

In a prospective study conducted between September 2015 and June 2016, 1 240 potential blood donors were enrolled. The donors were screened for malaria parasites using Giemsa microscopy (GM) and a RDT. A sub-sample of 184 samples, comprising 88 positive and 96 negative samples, were selected for the evaluation of the pLDH ELISA and the antibody ELISA. The chi-square test and correlation analysis were performed as part of the statistical analyses. The statistical significance cut-off was set at P < 0.05.

The prevalence of malaria parasitaemia in this study was found to be 8.1% (95% CI: 6.6 - 9.7). The prevalence was not observed to be dependent on the age or sex of the participants. The RDT had a sensitivity (88. 0%), specificity (99.1%), and negative predictive value (99.0%) higher than the ELISAs. The performance of the pLDH ELISA, which demonstrated the highest positive predictive value (91.6%), was generally comparable to the RDT. The sensitivity was lowest with the antibody ELISA (69.9%), which also demonstrated the highest false positive and false negative rates. The detection threshold for the pLDH (three parasites/μl) was lower compared to the RDT (50 - 60 parasites/μl). Non-significant positive correlations were observed between the parasite density and the pLDH titers and malaria antibody titers.

Overall, the RDT and the pLDH ELISA demonstrated a perfectly correlated agreement with GM, meanwhile the antibody ELISA demonstrated a substantially correlated agreement with GM. The pLDH is therefore recommended for mass screening of blood (to detect malaria parasitaemia) for transfusions in the study area. However, where this is not feasible, an RDT will suffice.

Please see Additional file 1 for translations of the abstract into the five official working languages of the United Nations.

Currently, in Brazil, there is a co-circulation of the four dengue (DENV-1 to DENV-4) serotypes. This study aimed to assess whether different serotypes and antibody response patterns were associated with the severity of the disease during a dengue outbreak, which occurred in 2012/2013 in centre of Brazil.

We conducted a prospective study with 452 patients with laboratory confirmed dengue in central Brazil, from January 2012 to July 2013. The clinical outcome was the severity of cases: dengue, dengue with warning signs, and severe dengue. The patients were evaluated at three different moments. Blood sampling for laboratory testing and confirmatory tests for dengue infection were performed. We performed a multinomial analysis considering the three categories of the dependent variable, as outlined above. The odds ratios (ORs) were calculated. A multinomial logistic regression model was applied for variables with a P-value <0.20. Statistical analysis was performed with STATA 12.0 software.

Four hundred fifty-two patients (452/632, 71.5%) were diagnosed with dengue. The dengue virus (DENV) serotypes were identified in 243 cases. DENV-4 was detected in 135 patients (55.6%), DENV-1 in 91 (37.4%), DENV-3 in 13 (5.3%), and DENV-2 in 4 (1.6%). Patients with the DENV-1 serotype were more prone to present with several clinical and laboratory features as compared with DENV-4 patients, including spontaneous bleeding (P = 0.03), intense abdominal pain (P = 0.004), neurological symptoms (P = 0.09), and thrombocytopenia (P = 0.01). Secondary infection was more predominant among DENV-4 cases (80.0%) compared with DENV-1 cases (62.3%) (P = 0.03). The univariate analysis showed that females (OR = 2.12; 95% CI: 1.44-3.13; P < 0.01) had a higher risk of having dengue with warning signs. The multinomial analysis showed that severe dengue cases with secondary infection had an adjusted OR of 2.80 (95% CI: 0.78-10.00; P = 0.113) as compared with dengue fever with primary infection when adjusted for age and sex.

The current data show that 5.8% of patients recruited for treatment in healthcare centres and hospitals during the study period had severe dengue. DENV-4 was the predominant serotype, followed by DENV-1, in a large outbreak of dengue in central Brazil. Our findings contribute to the understanding of clinical differences and immune status related to the serotypes DENV-1 and DENV-4 in central of Brazil.

The nest flea index of Meriones unguiculatus is a critical indicator for the prevention and control of plague, which can be used not only to detect the spatial and temporal distributions of Meriones unguiculatus, but also to reveal its cluster rule. This research detected the temporal and spatial distribution characteristics of the plague natural foci of Mongolian gerbils by body flea index from 2005 to 2014, in order to predict plague outbreaks.

Global spatial autocorrelation was used to describe the entire spatial distribution pattern of the body flea index in the natural plague foci of typical Chinese Mongolian gerbils. Cluster and outlier analysis and hot spot analysis were also used to detect the intensity of clusters based on geographic information system methods. The quantity of M. unguiculatus nest fleas in the sentinel surveillance sites from 2005 to 2014 and host density data of the study area from 2005 to 2010 used in this study were provided by Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention.

The epidemic focus regions of the Mongolian gerbils remain the same as the hot spot regions relating to the body flea index. High clustering areas possess a similar pattern as the distribution pattern of the body flea index indicating that the transmission risk of plague is relatively high. In terms of time series, the area of the epidemic focus gradually increased from 2005 to 2007, declined rapidly in 2008 and 2009, and then decreased slowly and began trending towards stability from 2009 to 2014. For the spatial change, the epidemic focus regions began moving northward from the southwest epidemic focus of the Mongolian gerbils from 2005 to 2007, and then moved from north to south in 2007 and 2008.

The body flea index of Chinese gerbil foci reveals significant spatial and temporal aggregation characteristics through the employing of spatial autocorrelation. The diversity of temporary and spatial distribution is mainly affected by seasonal variation, the human activity and natural factors.

Given the restricted distribution of Schistosoma mekongi in one province in Lao People's Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) and two provinces in Cambodia, together with progress of the national control programmes aimed at reducing morbidity and infection prevalence, the elimination of schistosomiasis mekongi seems feasible. However, sensitive diagnostic tools will be required to determine whether elimination has been achieved. We compared several standard and novel diagnostic tools in S. mekongi-endemic areas.

The prevalence and infection intensity of S. mekongi were evaluated in 377 study participants from four villages in the endemic areas in Lao PDR and Cambodia using Kato-Katz stool examination, antibody detection based on an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and schistosome circulating antigen detection by lateral-flow tests. Two highly sensitive test systems for the detection of cathodic and anodic circulating antigens (CCA, CAA) in urine and serum were utilized.

Stool microscopy revealed an overall prevalence of S. mekongi of 6.4% (one case in Cambodia and 23 cases in Lao PDR), while that of Opisthorchis viverrini, hookworm, Trichuris trichiura, Ascaris lumbricoides and Taenia spp. were 50.4%, 28.1%, 3.5%, 0.3% and 1.9%, respectively. In the urine samples, the tests for CCA and CAA detected S. mekongi infections in 21.0% and 38.7% of the study participants, respectively. In the serum samples, the CAA assay revealed a prevalence of 32.4%, while a combination of the CAA assay in serum and in urine revealed a prevalence of 43.2%. There was a difference between the two study locations with a higher prevalence reached in the samples from Lao PDR.

The CCA, CAA and ELISA results showed substantially higher prevalence estimates for S. mekongi compared to Kato-Katz thick smears. Active schistosomiasis mekongi in Lao PDR and Cambodia might thus have been considerably underestimated previously. Hence, sustained control efforts are still needed to break transmission of S. mekongi. The pivotal role of highly sensitive diagnostic assays in areas targeting elimination cannot be overemphasised.